Homologous recombination in the oocyte

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a method of modifying a target sequence in the genome of a mammalian or avian oocyte by homologous recombination with a donor nucleic acid sequence, the method comprising the steps (a) introducing into the oocyte a zinc finger nuclease or a nucleic acid molecule encoding the zinc finger nuclease in expressible form, wherein the zinc finger nuclease specifically binds within the target sequence and introduces a double strand break within the target sequence; and (b) introducing a nucleic acid molecule into the oocyte, wherein the nucleic acid molecule comprises the donor nucleic acid sequence and regions homologous to the target sequence. The present invention further relates to a method of producing a non-human mammal or an avian carrying a modified target sequence in its genome.

The present invention relates to a method of modifying a target sequence in the genome of a mammalian or avian oocyte by homologous recombination with a donor nucleic acid sequence, the method comprising the steps (a) introducing into the oocyte a zinc finger nuclease or a nucleic acid molecule encoding the zinc finger nuclease in expressible form, wherein the zinc finger nuclease specifically binds within the target sequence and introduces a double strand break within the target sequence; and (b) introducing a nucleic acid molecule into the oocyte, wherein the nucleic acid molecule comprises the donor nucleic acid sequence and regions homologous to the target sequence. The present invention further relates to a method of producing a non-human mammal or an avian carrying a modified target sequence in its genome.

In this specification, a number of documents including patent applications and manufacturer's manuals is cited. The disclosure of these documents, while not considered relevant for the patentability of this invention, is herewith incorporated by reference in its entirety. More specifically, all referenced documents are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual document was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

With the complete elucidation of the human, mouse and other mammalian genome sequences a major challenge is the functional characterization of every gene within the genome and the identification of gene products and their molecular interaction network. In the past two decades the mouse has developed into the prime mammalian genetic model to study human biology and disease because methods are available that allow the production of targeted, predesigned mouse mutants. This reverse genetics approach that enables the production of germ line and conditional knockout mice by gene targeting, relies on the use of murine embryonic stem (ES) cell lines. ES cell lines exhibit unique properties such that they are able, once established from the inner cell mass of a mouse blastocyst, to renew indefinitely in cell culture while retaining their early pluripotent differentiation state. This property allows to grow ES cells in large numbers and, since most mutagenesis methods are inefficient, to select rare genetic variants that are expanded into a pure stem cell clone that harbours a specific genetic alteration in the target gene. Upon introduction of ES cells into mouse blastocysts and subsequent embryo transfer these cells contribute to all cell types of the developing chimaeric embryo, including the germ line. By mating of germ line chimaeras to normal mice a genetic modification engineered in ES cells is inherited to their offspring and thereby transferred into the mouse germ line.

The basis for reverse mouse genetics was initially established in the decade of 1980-90 in three steps and the basic scheme that is followed since that time is essentially unchanged. The first of these steps was the establishment of ES cell lines from cultured murine blastocysts and of culture conditions that maintain their pluripotent differentiation state in vitro (Evans M J, Kaufman M H., Nature 1981; 292:154-6; Martin G R. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1981; 78:7634-8). A few years later it was first reported that ES cells, upon microinjection into blastocysts, are able to colonize the germ line in chimaeric mice (Bradley A, Evans M, Kaufman M H, Robertson E., Nature 1984; 309:255-6; Gossler A, Doetschman T, Korn R, Serfling E, Kemler R., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1986; 83:9065-9). The third step concerns the technology to introduce pre-planned, inactivating mutations into target genes in ES cells by homologous recombination between a gene targeting vector and endogenous loci (gene targeting). Gene targeting allows the introduction of pre-designed, site-specific modifications into the mouse genome (Capecchi M R. Trends Genet 1989; 5:70-6). Since the first demonstration of homologous recombination in ES cells in 1987 (Thomas K R, Capecchi M R., Cell 1987; 51:503-12) and the establishment of the first knockout mouse strain in 1989 (Schwartzberg P L, Goff S P, Robertson E J., Science 1989; 246:799-803) gene targeting was adopted to many other genes and has been used in the last decades to generate more than 3000 knockout mouse strains that provided a wealth of information on in vivo gene functions (Collins F S, Rossant J, Wurst W., Cell 2007; 128:9-13; Capecchi, M. R., Nat Rev Genet 2005; 6: 507-12).

Targeted gene inactivation in ES cells can be achieved through the insertion of a selectable marker (mostly the neomycin phosphotransferase gene, neo) into an exon of the target gene or the replacement of one or more exons. The mutant allele is initially assembled in a specifically designed gene targeting vector such that the selectable marker is flanked at both sides with genomic segments of the target gene that serve as homology regions to initiate homologous recombination. The frequency of homologous recombination increases with the length of these homology arms. Usually arms with a combined length of 10-15 kb are cloned into standard, high copy plasmid vectors that accommodate up to 20 kb of foreign DNA. To select against random vector integrations a negative selectable marker, such as the Herpes simplex thymidine kinase or diphtheria toxin gene, can be included at one end of the targeting vector. Upon electroporation of such a vector into ES cells and the selection of stable integrants, clones that underwent a homologous recombination event can be identified through the analysis of genomic DNA using a PCR or Southern blot strategy. Using such standard gene targeting vectors the efficiency at which homologous recombinant ES cell clones are obtained is the range of 0.1% to 10% as compared to the number of stable transfected (Neo resistant) ES cell clones. This rate depends on the length of the vector homology region, the degree of sequence identity of this region with the genomic DNA of the ES cell line and likely on the differential accessibility of individual genomic loci to homologous recombination. Optimal rates are achieved with longer homology regions and by the use of genomic fragments that exhibit sequence identity to the genome of the ES cell line, i.e. both should be isogenic and derived from the same inbred mouse strain (te Riele H, Maandag E R, Berns A. 1992. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89:5128-5132). Since the frequency of stable transfection of ES cells by electroporation is about 10⁻⁴ (i.e. 1 Neo resistant cone from 10.000 electroporated cells), the absolute efficiency of obtaining homologous recombinant ES cells falls in the range of 10⁻⁵-10⁻⁷ (Cheah S S, Behringer R R., Methods Mol Biol 2000; 136: 455-63; DeChiara T M.; Methods Mol Biol 2001; 158: 19-45; Hasty P, Abuin A, Bradley A., 2000, In Gene Targeting: a practical approach, ed. A L Joyner, pp. 1-35. Oxford: Oxford University Press; Nagy A, Gertsenstein M, Vintersten K, Behringer R., 2003. Manipulating the Mouse Embryo. Cold Spring Harbour, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press)

Upon the isolation of recombinant ES cell clones modified ES cells are injected into blastocysts to transmit the mutant allele through the germ line of chimaeras and to establish a mutant strain. Through interbreeding of heterozygous mutants homozygotes are obtained that can be used for phenotype analysis.

Using the “classical” gene targeting approach described above germ line mutants are obtained that harbour the knockout mutation in all cells throughout development. This strategy identifies the first essential function of a gene during ontogeny. If the gene product fulfils an important role in development its inactivation can lead to embryonic lethality precluding further analysis in adult mice. In general about 30% of all knockout mouse strains exhibit an embryonic lethal phenotype, for specific classes of genes, e.g. those regulating angiogenesis, this rate can reach 100%. To avoid embryonic lethality and to study gene function only in specific cell types Gu et al. (Gu H, Marth J D, Orban P C, Mossmann H, Rajewsky K., Science 1994; 265:103-6) introduced a modified, conditional gene targeting scheme that allows to restrict gene inactivation to specific cell types or developmental stages. In a conditional mutant, gene inactivation is achieved by the insertion of two 34 by recognition (loxP) sites of the site-specific DNA recombinase Cre into introns of the target gene such that recombination results in the deletion of loxP-flanked exons. Conditional mutants initially require the generation of two mouse strains: one strain harbouring a loxP flanked gene segment obtained by gene targeting in ES cells and a second, transgenic strain expressing Cre recombinase in one or several cell types. The conditional mutant is generated by crossing these two strains such that target gene inactivation occurs in a spatial and temporal restricted manner, according to the pattern of recombinase expression in the Cre transgenic strain (Nagy A, Gertsenstein M, Vintersten K, Behringer R. 2003. Manipulating the Mouse Embryo, third edition ed. Cold Spring Harbour, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press; Torres R M, Kühn R. 1997. Laboratory protocols for conditional gene targeting. Oxford: Oxford University Press). Conditional mutants have been used to address various biological questions which could not be resolved with germ line mutants, often because a null allele results in an embryonic or neonatal lethal phenotype.

Taken together, gene targeting in ES cells has revolutionised the in vivo analysis of mammalian gene function using the mouse as genetic model system. However, since germ line competent ES cell lines that can be genetically modified could be established only from mice, this reverse genetics approach is presently restricted to this rodent species. The exception from this rule is achieved by homologous recombination in primary cells from pig and sheep followed by the transplantation of nuclei from recombined somatic cells into enucleated oocytes (cloning) (Lai L, Prather R S. 2003. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2003; 1:82; Gong M, Rong Y S. 2003. Curr Opin Genet Dev 13:215-220). Since this methodology is inefficient and time consuming it has not the potential to develop into a simple routine procedure.

Although the generation of targeted mouse mutants via genome engineering in ES cells and the derivation of germ line transmitting chimaeras is established as a routine procedure this approach typically requires 1-2 years of hands on work for vector construction, ES cell culture and selection and the breeding of chimaeras. Typical problems that are encountered during a gene targeting project are the low efficiency of homologous recombination in ES cells and the loss of the germ line competence of ES cells during the long in vitro culture and selection phase. Therefore, the successful generation of even a single line of knockout mice requires considerable time, the combined efforts of specialists in molecular biology, ES cell culture and embryo manipulation, and the associated technical infrastructure.

Experiments in model systems have demonstrated that the frequency of homologous recombination of a gene targeting vector is strongly increased if a double-strand break is induced within its chromosomal target sequence. Using the yeast homing endonuclease I-Scel, that cuts DNA at an 18 base pair-long recognition site, it was initially shown that homologous recombination and gene targeting are stimulated over 1000-fold in mammalian cells when a recognition site is inserted into a target gene and I-Scel is expressed in these cells (Rouet, P., Smih, F., Jasin, M.; Mol Cell Biot 1994; 14: 8096-8106; Rouet, P., Smih, F. Jasin, M.; Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 6064-6068).

Zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) were developed as a method to apply the stimulatory power of double strand breaks to sequences of endogenous genes, without the need to introduce an artificial nuclease recognition site. Zinc finger nucleases are fusion proteins that link a zinc finger DNA binding domain to a non-specific nuclease domain (Porteus M H, Carroll D.; Nat Biotechnol 2005; 23:967-973; Durai S, Mani M, Kandavelou K, Wu J, Porteus M H, Chandrasegaran S. 2005. Nucleic Acids Res 2005; 33:5978-5990). For this purpose the non-sequence-specific cleavage domain of the Fok-I restriction endonuclease (Fn domain) can be fused to a zinc finger type DNA binding domain. Zinc finger protein modules occur in the DNA-binding domain of the most abundant family of eukaryotic transcription factors. Each finger is composed of 30 amino-acids, folds into a ββα a configuration that binds one Zn+ atom by two cysteines and two histidine residues, and contacts 3 base pairs of DNA. To recognize novel target sequences individual zinc fingers with different triplet targets can be combined and by altering individual amino acid residues the specificity for an individual finger can be altered. Individual fingers have been designed to recognize many of the 64 different target triplets, but the greatest success has been in designing zinc fingers to recognize 5′-GNN-3′triplets.

It is currently believed that the dimerisation of the nuclease domain is required for the cleavage of DNA by a zinc finger nuclease. Thus, a single three-finger zinc finger nuclease that recognises a 9 by sequence can act as homodimer to cleave a genomic target that contains an inverted repeat of the recognition sequence, separated by a spacer of 6 bp. Target sequences consisting of a unique 18 by sequence can be approached by the use of two different three finger zinc finger nucleases that act as heterodimer, each recognising a 9 by sequence. The induction of a double-stranded break into a target locus of interest strongly stimulates the cellular mechanisms for DNA repair. The activation of these repair functions can be exploited in two ways to induce different types of gene mutations.

Upon expression of a zinc finger nuclease, in the absence of a gene targeting vector for homology directed repair, the cells frequently close the double-strand break by non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ). This mechanism is error-prone and frequently leads to the deletion or insertion of multiple nucleotides at the cleavage site. If the ZFN target site is located within the coding region of a gene it is thereby possible to identify and select mutants that exhibit reading frameshift mutations from a mutagenised population and that represent non-functional knockout alleles of the targeted gene. By this application knockout alleles were generated in mammalian cell lines and knockout zebra fish and rats were obtained upon the expression of ZFN mRNA in one cell embryos (Santiago Y, Chan E, Liu P Q, Orlando S, Zhang L, Urnov F D, Holmes M C, Guschin D, Waite A, Miller J C, Rebar E J, Gregory P D, Klug A, Collingwood T N.; Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:5809-5814; Doyon Y, McCammon J M, Miller J C, Faraji F, Ngo C, Katibah G E, Amora R, Hocking T D, Zhang L, Rebar E J, Gregory P D, Urnov F D, Amacher S L.; Nat Biotechnol 2008; 26:702-708; Geurts A M, Cost G J, Freyvert Y, Zeitler B, Miller J C, Choi V M, Jenkins S S, Wood A, Cui X, Meng X, Vincent A, Lam S, Michalkiewicz M, Schilling R, Foeckler J, Kalloway S, Weiler H, Menoret S, Anegon I, Davis G D, Zhang L, Rebar E J, Gregory P D, Urnov F D, Jacob H J, Buelow R.; Science 2009; 325:433).

Upon expression of a zinc finger nuclease in the presence of an exogeneous gene targeting vector that contains homology regions to the target gene, the vector can be used as a template for homology driven repair of the double strand break through gene conversion. Usually gene targeting with ZFNs is induced at the site of the double-strand break but also occurs in a region of several hundred base pairs aside the break. The frequency of this homologous recombination event is several orders of magnitude higher as usually obtained by the use of a gene targeting vector in the absence of a zinc finger nuclease. This methodology has been applied to gene engineering in mammalian cell lines and gene correction in primary human cells (Urnov F D, Miller J C, Lee Y L, Beausejour C M, Rock J M, Augustus S, Jamieson A C, Porteus M H, Gregory P D, Holmes M C.; Nature 2005; 435:646-651; Porteus M H, Baltimore D. 2003. Science 300:763; Hockemeyer D, Soldner F, Beard C, Gao Q, Mitalipova M, DeKelver R C, Katibah G E, Amora R, Boydston E A, Zeitler B, Meng X, Miller J C, Zhang L, Rebar E J, Gregory P D, Urnov F D, Jaenisch R.; Nat Biotechnol 2009; 27:851-857).

Although the use of zinc finger nucleases results in a higher frequency of homologous recombination, the generation of targeted mouse mutants via genome engineering in ES cells and the derivation of germ line transmitting chimaeras still requires considerable time and effort. Due to the lack of embryonic stem cells lines, other mammalian species are not amenable to these methods at all.

While genetically engineered mice serve as research tool, other mammalian species and also birds, in particular chicken have great potential in animal biotechnology for the production of recombinant proteins. Transgenesis in chicken has been achieved by the infection of early embryos with viral vectors (Ivarie R.; Trends Biotechnol 2006; 24:99-101; Kamihira M, Nishijima K, lijima S.; Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol 2004; 91:171-189). The targeted modification of endogenous genes, however, has not been described for birds.

The technical problem underlying the present invention is thus the provision of improved means and methods for modifying the mammalian or avian genome.

The solution to this technical problem is achieved by providing the embodiments characterised in the claims.

Accordingly, the present invention relates to a method of modifying a target sequence in the genome of a mammalian or avian oocyte by homologous recombination with a donor nucleic acid sequence, the method comprising the steps (a) introducing into the oocyte a zinc finger nuclease or a nucleic acid molecule encoding the zinc finger nuclease in expressible form, wherein the zinc finger nuclease specifically binds within the target sequence and introduces a double strand break within the target sequence; and (b) introducing a nucleic acid molecule into the oocyte, wherein the nucleic acid molecule comprises the donor nucleic acid sequence and regions homologous to the target sequence.

The term “modifying” as used in accordance with the present invention refers to site-specific genomic manipulations resulting in changes in the nucleotide sequence. The genetic material comprising these changes in its nucleotide sequence is also referred to herein as the “modified target sequence”. The term “modifying” includes, but is not limited to, substitution, insertion and deletion of one or more nucleotides within the target sequence.

The term “substitution”, as used herein, refers to the replacement of nucleotides with other nucleotides. The term includes for example the replacement of single nucleotides resulting in point mutations. Said point mutations can lead to an amino acid exchange in the resulting protein product but may also not be reflected on the amino acid level. Also encompassed by the term “substitution” are mutations resulting in the replacement of multiple nucleotides, such as for example parts of genes, such as parts of exons or introns as well as replacement of entire genes.

The term “insertion” in accordance with the present invention refers to the incorporation of one or more nucleotides into a nucleic acid molecule. Insertion of parts of genes, such as parts of exons or introns as well as insertion of entire genes is also encompassed by the term “insertion”. When the number of inserted nucleotides is not dividable by three, the insertion can result in a frameshift mutation within a coding sequence of a gene. Such frameshift mutations will alter the amino acids encoded by a gene following the mutation. In some cases, such a mutation will cause the active translation of the gene to encounter a premature stop codon, resulting in an end to translation and the production of a truncated protein. When the number of inserted nucleotides is instead dividable by three, the resulting insertion is an “in-frame insertion”. In this case, the reading frame remains intact after the insertion and translation will most likely run to completion if the inserted nucleotides do not code for a stop codon. However, because of the inserted nucleotides, the finished protein will contain, depending on the size of the insertion, one or multiple new amino acids that may effect the function of the protein.

The term “deletion” as used in accordance with the present invention refers to the loss of nucleotides or part of genes, such as exons or introns as well as entire genes. As defined with regard to the term “insertion”, the deletion of a number of nucleotides that is not evenly dividable by three will lead to a frameshift mutation, causing all of the codons occurring after the deletion to be read incorrectly during translation, potentially producing a severely altered and most likely nonfunctional protein. If a deletion does not result in a frameshift mutation, i.e. because the number of nucleotides deleted is dividable by three, the resulting protein is nonetheless altered as the finished protein will lack, depending on the size of the deletion, several amino acids that may effect the function of the protein.

The above defined modifications are not restricted to coding regions in the genome, but can also occur in non-coding regions of the target genome, for example in regulatory regions such as promoter or enhancer elements or in introns.

Examples of modifications of the target genome include, without being limited, the introduction of mutations into a wildtype gene in order to analyse its effect on gene function; the replacement of an entire gene with a mutated gene or, alternatively, if the target sequence comprises mutation(s), the alteration of these mutations to identify which one is causative of a particular effect; the removal of entire genes or proteins or the removal of regulatory elements from genes or proteins as well as the introduction of fusion-partners, such as for example purification tags such as the his-tag or the tap-tag etc.

In accordance with the present invention, the term “target sequence in the genome” refers to the genomic location that is to be modified by the method of the invention. The “target sequence in the genome” comprises but is not restricted to the nucleotide(s) subject to the particular modification and the sequence to which the regions homologous to the target sequence bind. In other words, the term “target sequence in the genome” also comprises the sequence surrounding the relevant nucleotide(s) to be modified. Preferably, the term “target sequence” refers to the entire gene to be modified.

The term “oocyte”, as used herein, refers to the female germ cell involved in reproduction, i.e. the ovum or egg cell. In accordance with the present invention, the term “oocyte” comprises both oocytes before fertilisation as well as fertilised oocytes, which are also called zygotes. Thus, the oocyte before fertilisation comprises only maternal chromosomes, whereas an oocyte after fertilisation comprises both maternal and paternal chromosomes. After fertilisation, the oocyte remains in a double-haploid status for several hours, in mice for example for up to 18 hours after fertilisation.

The term “homologous recombination”, is used according to the definitions provided in the art. Thus, it refers to a mechanism of genetic recombination in which two DNA strands comprising similar nucleotide sequences exchange genetic material. Cells use homologous recombination during meiosis, where it serves to rearrange DNA to create an entirely unique set of haploid chromosomes, but also for the repair of damaged DNA, in particular for the repair of double strand breaks. The mechanism of homologous recombination is well known to the skilled person and has been described, for example by Paques and Haber (Paques F, Haber J E.; Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 1999; 63:349-404)

In accordance with the present invention, the term “donor nucleic acid sequence” refers to a nucleic acid sequence that serves as a template in the process of homologous recombination and that carries the modification that is to be introduced into the target sequence. By using this donor nucleic acid sequence as a template, the genetic information, including the modifications, is copied into the target sequence within the genome of the oocyte. In non-limiting examples, the donor nucleic acid sequence can be essentially identical to the part of the target sequence to be replaced, with the exception of one nucleotide which differs and results in the introduction of a point mutation upon homologous recombination or it can consist of an additional gene previously not present in the target sequence.

The term “zinc finger nuclease”, as used in accordance with the present invention, refers to a fusion protein consisting of the non-specific cleavage domain of an endonuclease, preferably a restriction endonuclease, and a DNA-binding domain consisting of zinc finger motifs. The term “zinc finger nuclease”, as used herein, refers to a functional zinc finger nuclease that essentially retains the enzymatic activity of the (restriction) endonuclease.

It is presently believed that the mechanism of double-strand cleavage by zinc finger nuclease requires dimerisation of the nuclease domain in order to cut the DNA substrate (Durai et al. 2005). Dimerisation of zinc finger nucleases can result in the formation of homodimers if only one type of zinc finger nuclease is present or in the formation of heterodimers, when different types of zinc finger nucleases are present. It is preferred in accordance with the present invention that at least two different types of zinc finger nucleases having differing zinc finger motifs are introduced into the oocyte. The at least two different types of zinc finger nucleases can be introduced into the oocyte either separately or together. Also envisaged herein is a zinc finger nuclease, which is provided as a functional dimer via linkage of two subunits of identical or different zinc finger nucleases prior to introduction into the oocyte.

In accordance with the present invention, (restriction) endonuclease function is essentially retained if at least 60% of the biological activity of the endonuclease activity are retained. Preferably, at least 75% or at least 80% of the endonuclease activity are retained. More preferred is that at least 90% such as at least 95%, even more preferred at least 98% such as at least 99% of the biological activity of the endonuclease are retained. Most preferred is that the biological activity is fully, i.e. to 100%, retained. Also in accordance with the invention are zinc finger nucleases having increased biological activity compared to the endogenous endonuclease, i.e. more than 100% activity. Methods of assessing biological activity of (restriction) endonucleases are well known to the person skilled in the art and include, without being limiting, the incubation of an endonuclease with recombinant DNA and the analysis of the reaction products by gel electrophoresis (Bloch K D.; Curr Protoc Mol Biol 2001; Chapter 3:Unit 3.2).

The term “nucleic acid molecule encoding the zinc finger nuclease in expressible form” refers to a nucleic acid molecule which, upon expression in a cell or a cell-free system, results in a functional zinc finger nuclease. Nucleic acid molecules as well as nucleic acid sequences, as used throughout the present description, include DNA, such as cDNA or genomic DNA, and RNA. Preferably, embodiments reciting “RNA” are directed to mRNA. Furthermore included is genomic RNA, such as in case of RNA of RNA viruses.

It will be readily appreciated by the skilled person that more than one nucleic acid molecule may encode a zinc finger nuclease in accordance with the present invention due to the degeneracy of the genetic code. Degeneracy results because a triplet code designates 20 amino acids and a stop codon. Because four bases exist which are utilized to encode genetic information, triplet codons are required to produce at least 21 different codes. The possible 4³ possibilities for bases in triplets give 64 possible codons, meaning that some degeneracy must exist. As a result, some amino acids are encoded by more than one triplet, i.e. by up to six. The degeneracy mostly arises from alterations in the third position in a triplet. This means that nucleic acid molecules having different sequences, but still encoding the same zinc finger nuclease can be employed in accordance with the present invention.

The terms “endonuclease” and “restriction endonuclease” are used herein according to the well-known definitions provided by the art. Both terms thus refer to enzymes capable of cutting nucleic acids by cleaving the phosphodiester bond within a polynucleotide chain. Preferably, the endonuclease is a type II S restriction endonuclease, such as for example FokI, AlwI, SfaNI, SapI, PleI, NmeAIII, MboII, MlyI, MmeI, HpYAV, HphI, HgaI, FauI, EarI, EciI, BtgZI, CspCI, BspQI, BspMI, BsaXI, BsgI, BseI, BpuEIBmrIBcgIBbvI, BaeI, BbsIAlwI, or AcuI or a type III restriction endonuclease (e.g. EcoP1I, EcoP15I, HinfIII). More preferably, the endonuclease is FokI endonuclease. FokI is a bacterial type IIS restriction endonuclease. It recognises the non-palindromic penta-deoxyribonucleotide 5′-GGATG-3′: 5′-CATCC-3′ in duplex DNA and cleaves 9/13 nucleotides downstream of the recognition site. FokI does not recognise any specific-sequence at the site of cleavage. Once the DNA-binding domain (either of the naturally occurring endonuclease, e.g. FokI or, in accordance with the present invention, of the zinc finger nuclease) is anchored at the recognition site, a signal is transmitted to the endonuclease domain and cleavage occurs. The distance of the cleavage site to the DNA-binding site of the zinc finger nuclease depends on the particular endonuclease present in the zinc finger nuclease. For example, the zinc finger nucleases employed in the examples of the present invention cleaves in the middle of a 6 by sequence that is flanked by the two binding sites of the zinc finger proteins. As a further example, naturally occurring endonucleases such as FokI and EcoP15I cut at 9/13 and 27 by distance from the DNA binding site, respectively.

Zinc finger motifs—also referred to herein as C₂H₂ zinc fingers—bind DNA by inserting their α-helix into the major groove of the DNA double helix. Each zinc finger motif primarily binds to a triplet within the DNA substrate. Binding to longer DNA sequences is achieved by linking several of these zinc finger motifs in tandem to form zinc finger proteins. The use of zinc finger proteins for the creation of zinc finger nucleases that recognize and cleave a specific target sequence depends on the reliable creation of zinc finger proteins that can specifically recognize said particular target. Methods for the generation of specific zinc finger nucleases are known to the skilled person and have been described, for example in Durai et al. 2005.

In accordance with the present invention, the term “specifically binds within the target sequence and introduces a double strand break within the target sequence” means that the zinc finger nuclease is designed such that statistically it only binds to a particular sequence and does not bind to an unrelated sequence elsewhere in the genome. Preferably, the zinc finger nuclease comprises at least four zinc finger motifs. In the case of zinc finger nucleases consisting of dimers as described above this means that each monomer of the zinc finger nuclease comprises at least two zinc finger motifs. More preferably, the zinc finger nuclease comprises at least six zinc finger motifs, such as for example at least eight or at least ten zinc finger motifs. Methods for testing the DNA-binding specificity of a zinc finger nuclease are known to the skilled person and include, without being limiting, phage display selection methods and the bacterial two hybrid system (Durai S, Mani M, Kandavelou K, Wu J, Porteus M H, Chandrasegaran S. 2005. Nucleic Acids Res 2005; 33:5978-5990).

Preferably, the binding site of the zinc finger nuclease is up to 500 nucleotides, such as up to 250 nucleotides, up to 100 nucleotides, up to 50 nucleotides, up to 25 nucleotides, up to 10 nucleotides such as up to 5 nucleotides upstream (i.e. 5′) or downstream (i.e. 3′) of the nucleotide(s) that is/are modified in accordance with the present invention.

In accordance with the method of modifying a target sequence of the present invention, the nucleic acid molecule introduced into the oocyte in step (b) comprises the donor nucleic acid sequence as defined above as well as additional regions that are homologous to the target sequence.

The term “regions homologous to the target sequence” (also referred to as “homology arms” herein), in accordance with the present invention, refers to regions having sufficient sequence identity to ensure specific binding to the target sequence. Methods to evaluate the identity level between two nucleic acid sequences are well known in the art. For example, the sequences can be aligned electronically using suitable computer programs known in the art. Such programs comprise BLAST (Altschul et al. (1990) J. Mol. Biol. 215, 403), variants thereof such as WU-BLAST (Altschul and Gish (1996) Methods Enzymol. 266, 460), FASTA (Pearson and Lipman (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85, 2444) or implementations of the Smith-Waterman algorithm (SSEARCH, Smith and Waterman (1981) J. Mol. Biol., 147, 195). These programs, in addition to providing a pairwise sequence alignment, also report the sequence identity level (usually in percent identity) and the probability for the occurrence of the alignment by chance (P-value).

Preferably, the “regions homologous to the target sequence” have a sequence identity with the corresponding part of the target sequence of at least 95%, more preferred at least 97%, more preferred at least 98%, more preferred at least 99%, even more preferred at least 99.9% and most preferred 100%. The above defined sequence identities are defined only with respect to those parts of the target sequence which serve as binding sites for the homology arms. Thus, the overall sequence identity between the entire target sequence and the homologous regions of the nucleic acid molecule of step (b) of the method of modifying a target sequence of the present invention can differ from the above defined sequence identities, due to the presence of the part of the target sequence which is to be replaced by the donor nucleic acid sequence.

It is preferred that at least two regions homologous to the target sequence are present in the nucleic acid molecule of (b).

In accordance with the method of the present invention, the steps of introducing a zinc finger nuclease into the oocyte and of introducing a nucleic acid molecule into the oocyte are either carried out concomitantly, i.e. at the same time or are carried out separately, i.e. individually and at different time points. When the steps are carried out concomitantly, both the zinc finger nuclease and the nucleic acid molecule can be administered in parallel, for example using two separate injection needles or can be mixed together and, for example, be injected using one needle.

In accordance with the present invention it was surprisingly found that it is possible to introduce targeted gene modifications into the genome of mammalian and avian zygotes and to achieve an unexpectedly high frequency of homologous recombination of up to 47%.

The often cited dictum “omne vivum ex ovo” by the ovulist W. Harvey (Exercitationies de generatione animalium; London 1651), to date refers to one of the most complex cell transformations in biology, the re-modelling of a fertilised oocyte into a totipotent zygote. Remarkably, this transition occurs in the absence of transcription factors and therefore depends on mRNAs accumulated in the oocyte during oogenesis. A growing mouse oocyte, arrested at diplotene of its first meiotic prophase, transcribes and translates many of its own genes, thereby producing a store of proteins sufficient to support development up to the 8-cell stage. These transcripts guide oocytes on the two steps of oocyte maturation and egg activation to become zygotes. Typically, oocytes are ovulated and become competent for fertilisation before reaching a second arrest point. When an oocyte matures into an egg, it arrests in metaphase of its second meiotic division where transcription stops and translation of mRNA is reduced. At this point an ovulated mouse egg has a diameter of 0.085 mm, with a volume of ˜300 picoliter it exceeds 1000-fold the size of a typical somatic cell (Nagy A, Gertsenstein M, Vintersten K, Behringer R., 2003. Manipulating the Mouse Embryo. Cold Spring Harbour, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press).

Life and the embryonic development of a mammal begin when sperm fertilises an egg to form a zygote. Fertilization of the egg triggers egg activation to complete the transformation to a zygote by signaling the completion of meiosis and the formation of pronuclei. At this stage the zygote represents a 1-cell embryo that contains a haploid paternal pronucleus derived from the sperm and a haploid maternal pronucleus derived from the oocyte. In mice this totipotent single cell stage lasts for only ˜18 hours until the first mitotic division occurs.

As totipotent single entities, mammalian zygotes could be regarded as a preferred substrate for genome engineering since the germ line of the entire animal is accessible within a single cell. However, the experimental accessibility and manipulation of zygotes is severely restricted by the very limited numbers at which they are available (dozens-hundred) and their very short lasting nature. These parameters readily explain that the vast majority of genome manipulations, that occur at frequencies of below 10⁻⁵ like gene targeting, can be successfully performed only in cultured embryonic stem cells that are grown up to a number of 10⁷ cells in a single standard culture plate. The only exception from this rule concerns the generation of transgenic mice by pronuclear DNA injection that has been developed into a routine procedure due to the high frequency of transgene integration in up to 30% of injected zygotes (Palmiter R D, Brinster R L.; Annu Rev Genet 1986; 20:465-499). Since microinjected transgenes randomly integrate into the genome, this method can only be used to express additional genes on the background of an otherwise normal genome, but does not allow the targeted modification of endogenous genes.

An early report to characterise the potential of zygotes for targeted gene manipulation by Brinster (Brinster R L, Braun R E, Lo D, Avarbock M R, Oram F, Palmiter R D.; Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1989; 86:7087-7091), showed that this approach is not practical as only one targeted mouse was obtained from >10.000 zygotes within 14 months of injections. Thus, Brinster et al. discouraged any further attempts in this direction. In addition to a low recombination frequency, Brinster et al. noted a high number of spontaneously occurring, undesired mutations within the targeted allele that severely compromised the function of the (repaired) histocompatibility class II gene. From the experience of Brinster et al. it could be extrapolated that the physiological, biochemical and epigenetic context of genomic DNA in the zygotic pronuclei are unfavourable to achieve targeted genetic manipulations, except for the random integration of transgenes that occurs at high frequency.

In addition, the biology of oocyte development into an embryo provides further obstacles for targeted genetic manipulations. In fertilized mammalian eggs, the two pronuclei that undergo DNA replication, do not fuse directly but approach each other and remain distinct until the membrane of each pronucleus has broken down in preparation for the zygote's first mitotic division that produces a 2-cell embryo. The 1-cell zygote stage is characterised by unique transcriptional and translation control mechanisms. One of the most striking features is a time-dependent mechanism, referred to as the zygotic clock, that delays the expression of the zygotic genome for ˜24 h after fertilization, regardless of whether or not the one-cell embryo has completed S phase and formed a two-cell embryo (Nothias J Y, Majumder S, Kaneko K J, DePamphilis M L.; J Biol Chem 1995 ;270:22077-22080). In nature, the zygotic clock provides the advantage of delaying zygotic gene activation (ZGA) until chromatin can be remodelled from a condensed meiotic state to one in which selected genes can be transcribed. Since the paternal genome is completely packaged with protamines that must be replaced with histones, some genes might be prematurely expressed if ZGA were not prevented. Cell-specific transcription requires that newly minted zygotic chromosomes repress most, if not all, promoters until development progresses to a stage where specific promoters can be activated by specific enhancers or trans-activators. In the mouse, formation of a 2-cell embryo marks the transition from maternal gene dependence to zygotic gene activation (ZGA). Among mammals, the extent of development prior to zygotic gene activation (ZGA) varies among species from one to four cleavage events. Maternal mRNA degradation is triggered by meiotic maturation and 90% completed in 2-cell embryos, although maternal protein synthesis continues into the 8-cell stage. In addition to transcriptional control, the zygotic clock delays the translation of nascent mRNA until the 2-cell stage (Nothias J Y, Miranda M, DePamphilis M L.; EMBO J 1996; 15:5715-5725). Therefore, the production of proteins from transgenic expression vectors injected into pronuclei is not achieved until 10-12 hours after the appearance of mRNA.

Geurts et al. have recently found that zinc finger nucleases can be used to induce double strand breaks in the genome of rat zygotes (Geurts A M, Cost G J, Freyvert Y, Zeitler B, Miller J C, Choi V M, Jenkins S S, Wood A, Cui X, Meng X, Vincent A, Lam S, Michalkiewicz M, Schilling R, Foeckler J, Kalloway S, Weiler H, Menoret S, Anegon I, Davis G D, Zhang L, Rebar E J, Gregory P D, Urnov F D, Jacob H J, Buelow R.; Science 2009; 325:433). In this work the induced strand breaks were left for the endogenous, error prone DNA repair mechanism in order to later identify randomly occurring mutant alleles that lost or acquired nucleotides at the site of DNA cleavage. Provided that the zinc finger nuclease cleavage site is located within an exon region of a gene, a reading frame shift will occur in some of the mutant alleles and thereby lead to the production of truncated, non-functional protein. However, this method only leads to the generation of undirected mutations within the coding region of a gene. So far, it has not been possible to induce directed modifications like pre-planned nucleotide substitutions, to insert exogeneous DNA sequences like reporter genes and recombinase recognition sites or to replace e.g. murine versus human coding regions.

To introduce such genetic modifications requires homologous recombination of a specifically designed gene targeting vector with a target gene. Since procedures to achieve high rate homologous recombination in zygotes were not known so far, gene targeting in somatic cells and the subsequent nuclear transfer into enucleated oocytes from sheep and pig have been used as a surrogate technique (Lai L, Prather R S. 2003. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2003; 1:82; Gong M, Rong Y S. 2003. Curr Opin Genet Dev 13:215-220). However, both techniques are demanding and not very efficient and their combined use is impractical and not well suited for routine application.

In accordance with the present invention a method of introducing genetic modifications into a target genome is provided that overcomes the above discussed problems currently faced by the skilled person. Using the method of the present invention it is now possible to generate genetically modified animals faster, easier and more cost-effective than using any of the prior art methods.

In an alternative embodiment, the present invention relates to a method of modifying a target sequence in the genome of a mammalian or avian oocyte by homologous recombination with a donor nucleic acid sequence, the method comprising the steps (a) introducing a fusion protein comprising a DNA-binding domain and a non-specific cleavage domain of a restriction nuclease into the oocyte, wherein the fusion protein specifically binds within the target sequence and introduces a double strand break within the target sequence; and (b) introducing a nucleic acid molecule into the oocyte, wherein the nucleic acid molecule comprises the donor nucleic acid sequence and regions homologous to the target sequence.

Preferably, the DNA-binding domain is selected from the group consisting of helix-loop-helix binding proteins, basic leucine zipper (bZip) proteins or the classes of single or triple zinc finger proteins.

The family of helix-loop-helix binding proteins comprises standard helix-turn-helix binding proteins such as the Escherichia coli lactose repressor or the tryptophan repressor, homeodomain proteins such as the Drosophila Antennapedia protein, paired homeodomain proteins such as the Vertebrate Pax transcription factors, POU domain proteins such as the Vertebrate regulatory proteins PIT-1, OCT-1 and OCT-2, winged helix-turn-helix proteins such as the GABP regulatory protein of higher eukaryotes as well as high mobility group (HMG) domain proteins.

The bZip family consist of a basic region which interacts with the major groove of a DNA molecule through hydrogen bonding, and a hydrophobic leucine zipper region which is responsible for dimerisation. Non-limiting examples of bZip proteins are c-fos and c-jun.

The family of single zinc finger proteins comprises for example transcription regulating proteins like GAGA, while the family of triple zinc finger proteins comprises for example transcription regulating proteins like Krox24, Egr1, BKLF and SP1.

In a preferred embodiment of the method of the invention, the mammalian or avian oocyte is a fertilised mammalian or avian oocyte.

As defined above, the term “fertilised oocyte” refers to an oocyte after fusion with the fertilizing sperm. For a period of many hours (such as up to 18 hours in mice) after fertilisation, the oocyte is in a double-haploid state, comprising one maternal haploid pronucleus and one paternal haploid pronucleus. After migration of the two pronuclei together, their membranes break down, and the two genomes condense into chromosomes, thereby reconstituting a diploid organism. Preferably, the mammalian or avian oocyte used in the method of the present invention is a fertilised mammalian or avian oocyte in the double-haploid state.

In another preferred embodiment of the method of the invention, the zinc finger nuclease and the nucleic acid molecule are introduced into the oocyte by microinjection.

Microinjection into the oocyte can be carried out by injection into the nucleus (before fertilisation), the pronucleus (after fertilisation) and/or by injection into the cytoplasm (both before and after fertilisation). When a fertilised oocyte is employed, injection into the pronucleus is carried out either for one pronucleus or for both pronuclei. Injection of the zinc finger nuclease or of a DNA encoding the zinc finger nuclease of step (a) of the method of modifying a target sequence of the present invention is preferably into the nucleus/pronucleus, while injection of an mRNA encoding the zinc finger nuclease of step (a) is preferably into the cytoplasm. Injection of the nucleic acid molecule of step (b) is preferably into the nucleus/pronucleus. However, injection of the nucleic acid molecule of step (b) can also be carried out into the cytoplasm when said nucleic acid molecule is provided as a nucleic acid sequence having a nuclear localisation signal to ensure delivery into the nucleus/pronucleus. Preferably, the microinjection is carried out by injection into both the nucleus/pronucleus and the cytoplasm. For example, the needle can be introduced into the nucleus/pronucleus and a first amount of the zinc finger nuclease and/or nucleic acid molecule are injected into the nucleus/pronucleus. While removing the needle from the oocyte, a second amount of the zinc finger nuclease and/or nucleic acid molecule is injected into the cytoplasm.

Methods for carrying out microinjection are well known in the art and are described for example in Nagy et al. (Nagy A, Gertsenstein M, Vintersten K, Behringer R., 2003. Manipulating the Mouse Embryo. Cold Spring Harbour, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press) as well as in the examples herein below.

In a more preferred embodiment, the nucleic acid molecule encoding the zinc finger nuclease in expressible form is mRNA.

In another preferred embodiment of the method of the invention, the regions homologous to the target sequence are localised at the 5′ and 3′ end of the donor nucleic acid sequence.

In this preferred embodiment, the donor nucleic acid sequence is flanked by the two regions homologous to the target sequence such that the nucleic acid molecule used in the method of the present invention consists of a first region homologous to the target sequence, followed by the donor nucleic acid sequence and then a second region homologous to the target sequence.

In a further preferred embodiment of the method of the invention, the regions homologous to the target sequence comprised in the nucleic acid molecule have a length of at least 400 bp each. More preferably, the regions each have a length of at least 500 nucleotides, such as at least 600 nucleotides, at least 750 bp nucleotides, more preferably at least 1000 nucleotides, such as at least 1500 nucleotides, even more preferably at least 2000 nucleotides and most preferably at least 2500 nucleotides. The maximum length of the regions homologous to the target sequence comprised in the nucleic acid molecule depends on the type of cloning vector used and can be up to a length 20.000 nucleotides each in E. coli high copy plasmids using the col EI replication origin (e.g. pBluescript) or up to a length of 300.000 nucleotides each in plasmids using the F-factor origin (e.g. in BAC vectors such as for example pTARBAC1).

In a further preferred embodiment of the method of the invention, the modification of the target sequence is selected from the group consisting of substitution, insertion and deletion of at least one nucleotide of the target sequence. Preferred in accordance with the present invention are substitutions, for example substitutions of 1 to 3 nucleotides and insertions of exogenous sequences, such as loxP sites (34 nucleotides long) or cDNAs, such as for example for reporter genes. Such cDNAs for reporter genes can, for example, be up to 6 kb long.

In another preferred embodiment of the method of the invention, the oocyte is from a mammal selected from the group consisting of rodents, dogs, felides, monkeys, rabbits, pigs, or cows or wherein the oocyte is from an avian selected from the group consisting of chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ducks, geese, quails and ratites including ostriches, emus and cassowaries.

All of the mammals and avians described herein are well known to the skilled person and are taxonomically defined in accordance with the prior art and the common general knowledge of the skilled person.

Non-limiting examples of “rodents” are mice, rats, squirrels, chipmunks, gophers, porcupines, beavers, hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, degus, chinchillas, prairie dogs, and groundhogs.

Non-limiting examples of “dogs” include members of the subspecies canis lupus familiaris as well as wolves, foxes, jackals, and coyotes.

Non-limiting examples of “felides” include members of the two subfamilies: the pantherinae, including lions, tigers, jaguars and leopards and the felinae, including cougars, cheetahs, servals, lynxes, caracals, ocelots and domestic cats.

The term “primates”, as used herein, refers to all monkey including for example cercopithecoid (old world monkey) or platyrrhine (new world monkey) as well as lemurs, tarsiers, apes and marmosets (Callithrix jacchus).

In one embodiment, the mammalian oocyte is not a human oocyte. In another embodiment, the fertilized oocyte is not a human oocyte.

The present invention further relates to a method of producing a non-human mammal or an avian carrying a modified target sequence in its genome, the method comprising (a) modifying the target sequence in the genome of a mammalian or avian oocyte in accordance with the method of the invention; (b) transferring the oocyte obtained in (a) to a pseudopregnant female host; and (c) analysing the offspring delivered by the female host for the presence of the modification.

In accordance with the present invention, the term “transferring the oocyte obtained in (a) to a pseudopregnant female host” includes the transfer of the fertilised oocyte but also the transfer of pre-implantation embryos of for example the 2-cell, 4-cell, 8-cell, 16-cell and blastocyst (70- to 100-cell) stage. Thus, for the method of producing a non-human mammal or an avian, fertilisation of the oocyte is required. Said fertilisation can occur before the modification of the target sequence in step (a) in accordance with the method of producing a non-human mammal or an avian of the invention, i.e. a fertilised oocyte can be used for the method of modifying a target sequence in accordance with the invention. The fertilisation can also be carried out after the modification of the target sequence in step (a), i.e. a non-fertilised oocyte can be used for the method of modifying a target sequence in accordance with the invention, wherein the oocyte is subsequently fertilised before transfer into the pseudopregnant female host. The fertilised oocyte can be directly transferred to the pseudopregnant female host after carrying out the method of modifying the target sequence in the genome. Alternatively, the oocyte can be kept in culture to develop to the above mentioned stages of development before transfer to the female host. Methods for transferring the oocyte to a pseudopregnant female host are well known in the art and are, for example, described in Nagy et al., (Nagy A, Gertsenstein M, Vintersten K, Behringer R., 2003. Manipulating the Mouse Embryo. Cold Spring Harbour, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press).

The step of analysing in (c) for the presence of the modification in the offspring delivered by the female host provides the necessary information whether or not the produced non-human mammal or the avian carries the modified target sequence in its genome. Thus, the presence of the modification is indicative of said offspring carrying a modified target sequence in its genome whereas the absence of the modification is indicative of said offspring not carrying the modified target sequence in its genome. Methods for analysing for the presence or absence of a modification are well known in the art and include, without being limiting, assays based on physical separation of nucleic acid molecules, sequencing assays as well as cleavage and digestion assays and DNA analysis by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Examples for assays based on physical separation of nucleic acid molecules include without limitation MALDI-TOF, denaturating gradient gel electrophoresis and other such methods known in the art, see for example Petersen et al., Hum. Mutat. 20 (2002) 253-259; Hsia et al., Theor. Appl. Genet. 111 (2005) 218-225; Tost and Gut, Clin. Biochem. 35 (2005) 335-350; Palais et al., Anal. Biochem. 346 (2005) 167-175.

Examples for sequencing assays comprise without limitation approaches of sequence analysis by direct sequencing, fluorescent SSCP in an automated DNA sequencer and Pyrosequencing. These procedures are common in the art, see e.g. Adams et al. (Ed.), “Automated DNA Sequencing and Analysis”, Academic Press, 1994; Alphey, “DNA Sequencing: From Experimental Methods to Bioinformatics”, Springer Verlag Publishing, 1997; Ramon et al., J. Transl. Med. 1 (2003) 9; Meng et al., J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90 (2005) 3419-3422.

Examples for cleavage and digestion assays include without limitation restriction digestion assays such as restriction fragments length polymorphism assays (RFLP assays), RNase protection assays, assays based on chemical cleavage methods and enzyme mismatch cleavage assays, see e.g. Youil et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92 (1995) 87-91; Todd et al., J. Oral Maxil. Surg. 59 (2001) 660-667; Amar et al., J. Clin. Microbiol. 40 (2002) 446-452.

It is further envisaged in accordance with the method of producing a non-human mammal or an avian carrying a modified target sequence in its genome that the step of analysis of successful genomic modification is carried out before transplantation into the female host. As a non-limiting example, the oocyte can be cultured to the 2-cell, 4-cell or 8-cell stage and one cell can be removed without destroying or altering the resulting embryo. Analysis for the genomic constitution, e.g. the presence or absence of the genomic modification, can then be carried out using for example PCR or southern blotting techniques. Such methods of analysis of successful genotyping prior to transplantation are known in the art and are described, for example Peippo et al. (Peippo J, Viitala S, Virta J, Raty M, Tammiranta N, Lamminen T, Aro J, Myllymaki H, Vilkki J.; Mol Reprod Dev 2007; 74:1373-1378).

The non-human mammal or avian produced by the method of the invention is, inter alia, useful to study the function of genes of interest and the phenotypic expression/outcome of modifications of the genome in such animals. It is furthermore envisaged, that the non-human mammals of the invention can be employed as disease models and for testing therapeutic agents/compositions. Furthermore, the non-human mammals of the invention can also be used for livestock breeding.

In a preferred embodiment, the non-human mammal is selected from the group consisting of rodents, dogs, felides, primates, rabbits, pigs, or cows or wherein the oocyte is from an avian selected from the group consisting of chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ducks, geese, quails and ratites including ostriches, emus and cassowaries.

The figures show:

FIG. 1. Gene targeting vector pRosa26.8-2, structure of the Rosa26 locus and recognition sequence for zincfinger nuclease fusion proteins.

A: Structure of the gene targeting vector pRosa26.8-2. The 5′ and 3′ homology regions (5′HR, 3′HR) to the Rosa26 locus are flanking the reporter gene cassette comprising a splice acceptor (SA) sequence, the [3-galactosidase coding region and a polyadenylation sequence (pA); B: Structure of the genomic Rosa26 locus. Shown are the first 2 exons of Rosa26 and the Rosa26 promoter (arrow) upstream of exon 1. The homology regions to the pRosa26.8-2 vector within intron 1 are indicated by stippled lines and the target site for the pair of zincfinger nucleases is shown by an arrow. Upon occurrence of a double strand break at this site homologous recombination ist stimulated resulting in the recombined Rosa26 locus; C: Recombined Rosa26 locus. Upon insertion of the reporter gene cassette into the zincfinger nuclease target site the reporters splice acceptor is spliced to the Rosa26 exon 1 sequence, leading to the production of a mRNA coding for β-galactosidase (βGal.).

FIG. 2. Scheme for the generation of genetically modified mice at the Rosa26 locus by injection of the pRosa26.5-2 gene targeting vector together with mRNA coding for Rosa26 specific zincfinger nucleases. A: Fertilised oocytes, collected from superovulated females; B: Microinjection of a gene targeting vector and mRNA coding for zincfinger nucleases into one pronucleus and the cytoplasm of a fertilised oocyte; C: In vitro culture of injected embryos and assessment of reporter gene activity. Injected embryos can either directly transferred to pseudopregnant females or after detection of the reporter activity if a live stain is used; D: Pseudopregnant females deliver live offspring from microinjected oocytes, E: The offspring is genotyped for the presence of the induced genetic modification. Positive animals are selected for further breeding to establish a gene targeted strain.

FIG. 3. Pre-implantation mouse embryos, injected at the zygote stage with the pRosa26.8-2 gene targeting vector and mRNA coding for Rosa26 specific Zincfinger nucleases, that were cultured in vitro, fixed and incubated with X-Gal staining solution to identify β-Galactosidase positive cells as indication for the occurrence of homologous recombination. A: non-stained 2-cell embryo; B: mosaic stained 2-cell embryo; C: complete stained 2-cell embryo; D: non-stained 4-cell embryo; E: mosaic stained 4-cell embryo; F: complete stained 4-cell embryo

FIG. 4. Mouse fetus at day 18 of development, injected at the one cell (zygote) stage with the pRosa26.8-2 gene targeting vector and mRNA coding for Rosa26 specific Zincfinger nucleases.

A: Macroscopic view before fixation and X-Gal staining; B and C: Embryo shown in A) upon fixation and X-Gal staining. Tissues exhibit a complete or mosaic pattern of β-Galactosidase activity.

FIG. 5. Targeted integration of a β-Galactosidase reporter gene into the Rosa26 locus. (A) Targeting vector pRosa26.8-2 for insertion of a 4.2 kb β-Galactosidase gene, including a splice acceptor (SA) and polyA site, into the Rosa26 locus. The structure of the wildtype locus, including the ZFN^(Rosa) recognition sites that overlap with an intronic XbaI site (X), and of the recombined Rosa26 allele are shown. The location of the Rosa26 promoter (Pr.), first exon, of Southern blot probes and EcoRV (E), XbaI (X) and Swal (S) sites and fragments are indicated. (B) Genomic DNA of E18 fetuses derived from zygote co-injections of ZFN^(Rosa) and pRosa26.8 was digested with XbaI or EcoRV and analyzed by Southern blotting using the Rosa26 5′-probe. The wildtype Rosa26 locus exhibits a 4.7 kb XbaI and a 11.5 kb EcoRV fragment (WT). The loss of the ZFN^(Rosa) target XbaI site by NHEJ results in a 9 kb fragment (fetus 14, 15, 21). Targeted integration of the reporter gene is detected with the Rosa26 5′-probe by the presence of a 8.5 kb XbaI and 3.6 kb EcoRV fragment (fetus 22). (C) Sequence comparison of cloned PCR products (primers Rosa 5HA/Rosa 3HA), covering the ZFN^(Rosa) target region, from genomic DNA of fetus #9, #14 and #21, with the respective Rosa26 wildtype sequence. The location of the XbaI site within the ZFN^(Rosa) target region is indicated. In PCR amplified Rosa26 alleles from pups #9, #14 and #21 the XbaI site is lost by the deletion of multiple nucleotides (dashes). Sequence identity of compared sequences is marked; deleted or additional nucleotides, as compared to the Rosa26 wildtype sequence, are indicated by a dash (-). (D) Southern blot analysis of EcoRV+SwaI digested genomic DNA with the Rosa26 3′-probe reveals a 11.5 kb band derived from the wildtype locus and a 9.4 kb fragment from the recombined allele (fetus 22, 14). Exposure time for samples 21 to 55 were 2 days (2d) and 3 days (3d) for sample 14. Southern blot analysis of XbaI digested DNA of fetus 22 with an internal 3-Galactosidase probe shows the predicted 8.5 kb band representing the recombined allele. (E) Habitus of fetus 22 (recombined) and 24 (wildtype) and X-GaI staining of liver sections.

FIG. 6. Targeted integration of a Venus reporter gene into the Rosa26 locus.

(A) Targeting vector pRosa26.3-3 for insertion of a 1.1 kb Venus gene, including a splice acceptor (SA) and polyA site, into the Rosa26 locus. The structure of the wildtype locus, including the ZFN^(Rosa) recognition sites that overlap with an intronic XbaI site (X), and of the recombined Rosa26 allele are shown. The location of the Rosa26 promoter (Pr.), first exon, of Southern blot probes and XbaI (X) and BamHI (B) sites and fragments are indicated. (B) Genomic DNA of E18 fetuses derived from zygotes coinjections of ZFN^(Rosa) and pRosa26.3 was digested with BamHl or XbaI and analyzed by Southern blotting using the Rosa26 5′-probe. The wildtype Rosa26 locus exhibits a 5.8 kb BamHl and a 4.7 kb XbaI band. Targeted integration of the reporter gene is indicated by the presence of a predicted 3.1 kb BamHI and a 5.6 kb XbaI fragment detected with the Rosa26 5′-probe (fetus 6). The loss of the ZFN^(Rosa) target XbaI site by NHEJ in nonrecombined alleles results in a 9 kb band (fetus 6). (C) Analysis of BamHI digested DNA with the internal Venus probe shows a predicted 3.9 kb band from the recombined allele of fetus 6. (D) Habitus of fetus #6 (recombined) and #7 (wildtype).

The examples illustrate the invention.

EXAMPLE 1 Methods

Plasmid Constructions

The gene targeting vector pRosa26.8-2 (SEQ ID No:1) was derived from the vector pRosa26.8 by the removal of a 1.6 kb fragment that contains a pgk-diphtheria toxin A gene. For this purpose pRosa26.8 was digested with EcoRI and KpnI, the vector ends were blunted by treatment with Klenow and T4 DNA polymerase, and the 12.4 kb vector fragment was re-ligated. pRosa26.8 was derived from pRosa26.1 (Soriano P.; Nat Genet 1999; 21:70-71) by insertion of a I-SceI recognition site into the SacII site located upstream of the 5′ Rosa26 homology arm and the insertion of a splice acceptor element linked to the coding region for β-galactosidase and a polyadenylation signal downstream of the 5′ homology arm. The expression vectors for zincfinger nucleases recognising a target site within the first intron of the murine Rosa26 locus (SEQ ID No: 2) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich Inc.

Targeting vector pROSA26.3-3 (SEQ ID No: 3) is equal to pRosa26.8, except that it contains a 1.1 kb reporter cassette for expression of the Venus GFP protein. The homology arms of both targeting vectors were sequenced and found identical to the genomic sequence of the strain C57BL/6J.

Preparation of DNA and RNA for Microinjection

Plasmid pRosa26.8-2 was linearised by digestion with I-SceI, precipitated and resolved in injection buffer (10 mM Tris, 0.1 mM EDTA, pH 7.2). Targeting vector pRosa26.3-3 was used as circular DNA. Zincfinger nuclease RNA for injection was prepared from the linearised expression plasmids and transcribed from the T7 promoter using the mMessage mMachine kit (Ambion) according to the manufacturers instructions. The mRNA was further modified by the addition of a poly-A tail using the Poly(A) tailing kit and purified with MegaClear columns from Ambion. Finally the mRNA was precipitated and resolved in injection buffer. Aliquots for injection experiments were adjusted to a concentration of 5 ng/μl of pRosa26.8-2 or 15 ng/ul of pRosa26.3-3 and 2.5 ng/μl of each zincfinger nuclease (ZFN) mRNA.

Isolation and Injection of Fertilised Oocytes

To isolate fertilised oocytes, males of the C57BL/6 strain were mated to super-ovulated females of the FVB strain. For super-ovulation three-week old FVB females were treated with 2.5 IU pregnant mares serum (PMS) 2 days before mating and with 2.5 IU Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) at the day of mating. Fertilised oocytes were isolated from the oviducts of plug positive females and microinjected in M2 medium (Sigma-Aldrich Inc Cat. No. M7167) with the pRosa26.8-2/ZFN mRNA preparation into one pronucleus and the cytoplasm following standard procedures (Nagy A, Gertsenstein M, Vintersten K, Behringer R., 2003. Manipulating the Mouse Embryo. Cold Spring Harbour, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press).

In Vitro Culture and X-GaI Staining of Embryos

For the detection of β-galactosidase activity the microinjected oocytes were further cultivated for 3 days in KSOM medium (Millipore, Cat. No. MR-020-PD) at 37° C./5% CO₂5% O₂ and fixed for 10 minutes in 4% formaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). After washing with PBS the embryos were transferred to X-Gal staining solution (5 mM K3(Fe^(III)(CN)₆), 5 mM K4(Fe^(II)(CN)₆), 2 mM MgCl₂, 1 mg/ml X-Gal (5-bromo-chloro-3-indoyl-β-D-galactopyranosid) in PBS) and incubated at 37° C. for up to 24 hours.

Southern Blot Analysis

6 μg of genomic DNA were digested overnight with 30 units restriction enzyme in a volume of 30 μl and then re-digested with 10 units enzyme for 2-3 hours. Samples were loaded on 0.8% agarose gels in TBE buffer and run at 55 V overnight. The gels were then denaturated for one hour in 1.5 M NaCl; 0.5 M NaOH, neutralized for one hour in 0.1 M Tris HCl pH 7.5; 0.5 M NaCl, washed with 2×SSC and blotted overnight with 20×SSC on Hybond N⁺ membranes (GE Healthcare). The membranes were then washed with 2×SSC, UV-crosslinked and stored at −20° C. For hybridization the membranes were pre-incubated in Church buffer (1% BSA, 1 mM EDTA, 0.5 M phosphate buffer, 7% SDS) for 1 hour at 65° C. under rotation. The Rosa26 5′-probe (SEQ ID No: 4) was isolated as 460 by EcoRI fragment from plasmid pCRII-Rosa5′-probe, the Rosa26 3′-probe (SEQ ID No: 5) was isolated as 660 bp EcoRI fragment from the plasmid pCRII-Rosa3′-probe, as described (Hitz et al. 2007). As β-Galactosidase probe (SEQ ID No: 6) we used the 1250 bp SacII/EcoRV coding fragment from pCMVβ and as Venus probe the venus coding region, isolated as 730 bp BamHI/EcoRI fragment (SEQ ID No: 7) from pCS2-venus, was used. DNA fragments used as hybridization probes were heat denatured and labeled with P³² marked dCTP (Perkin Elmer) using the high-prime DNA labeling kit (Roche). Labeled probe DNA was purified on MicroSpin™ S-200 HR columns (GE Healthcare), heat denatured, added to the hybridization buffer and membranes rotated overnight at 65° C. The washing buffer (2×SSC, 0.5% SDS) was pre-warmed to 65° C. and the membranes were washed three times (five minutes, 30 minutes, 15 minutes) a 65° C. under shaking. Next, the membranes were exposed at −80° C. to Biomax MS1 films and enhancing screens (Kodak) for 1 to 5 days until development. Photos of autoradiographs were taken with a digital camera (Canon) on a transmitting light table and segments excised with the Adobe Photoshop software.

PCR and Sequence Analysis

To analyze the Rosa26 alleles recombined with pRosa26.8-2 we amplified DNA from fetuses 22, 21 and 14 (co-injected with ZFN^(Rosa) and pRosa26.8) using the primer pairs Rosa 5HA (SEQ ID No: 8) and SA1 (SEQ ID No: 9) or SA2 (SEQ ID No: 10) to amplify the 5′-homology arm/splice acceptor junction and the primer pairs Rosa 3HA (SEQ ID No: 11) and pA1 (SEQ ID No: 12) or pA2 (SEQ ID No: 13) to amplify the junction of the SV40 polyA/3′-homology arm. Amplification was performed using Herculase polymerase (Invitrogen) in 100 μl reactions with 38 cycles of: 95° C. −30 s; 59° C. −1 min; 72° C. −1 min. In embryos with recombination events PCR products have the expected sizes: Rosa 5HA/SA1: 346 bp; Rosa 5HA/SA2: 365 bp; Rosa 3HA/pA1: 467 bp; Rosa 3HA/pA2: 625 bp. PCR products from embryos exhibiting homologous recombination events were directly sequenced (Sequiserve, Vaterstetten, Germany) and compared to the pRosa26.8 vector sequence using the Vector NTI software (Invitrogen). Genomic DNA from fetuses 9, 14 and 21, that lost the XbaI site in the ZFN target region as found by Southern blotting, and of wildtype controls were further analysed for NHJE induced mutations by PCR amplification using the primer pair Rosa 5HA and Rosa 3HA (wildtype PCR product: 252 bp). These PCR products were cloned using the StrataClone Blunt PCR Cloning Kit (Stratagene). Plasmid DNA was isolated with the Qiaprep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen) and analyzed by digestion with EcoRI to confirm the presence of vector inserts and digested with XbaI to analyze for the loss of the ZFN^(Rosa) target XbaI site. Selected clones were sequenced using the T3 forward primer (Sequiserve) and analyzed for mutations in comparison to the Rosa26 wildtype sequence using the Vector NTI software.

To analyze Rosa26 homologous recombined alleles with pRosa26.3-3 we amplified DNA from fetus 6 (co-injected with ZFN^(Rosa) and pRosa26.3) using the primer pair Rosa 5HA and pA3 (SEQ ID No: 14) and the primer pair Rosa 3HA and SA3 (SEQ ID No: 15). PCR products (5HA/pA3: 1180 bp, 3HA/SA3: 1057 bp) were directly sequenced with a single 950 bp read (Sequiserve, Vaterstetten, Germany) and compared to the pRosa26.3-3 vector sequence using the Vector NTI software (Invitrogen).

Preparation of Genomic DNA

A segment of the other embryo half not used for staining was used for the isolation of genomic DNA. For this purpose frozen tissue segments were homogenized in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0; 100 mM EDTA, pH 8,0; 1% SDS; 100 mM NaCl; 350 μg/μl Proteinase K) and incubated at 55° C. for two hours under vigorous shaking. Upon tissue lysis phenol/chloroform (1:1) was added, the mixture was vortexed and centrifugated for ten minutes at 16.000 g. The supernatant was transferred into new tubes and extracted with chloroform. The supernatant was mixed with 0.7 volumes isopropanol to precipitate the genomic DNA. Precipitated DNA was collected by centrifugation and the pellet washed with 70% ethanol. The pellet was air-dried, re-suspended in TE buffer and incubated overnight at room temperature.

EXAMPLE 2 Targeted Insertion of a β-Galactosidase Reporter Gene into the Rosa26 Locus

With this experiment it was tested whether homologous recombination at the site of a double strand break induced by a zincfinger nuclease occurs at a reasonable frequency (>1%) in fertilised mouse oocytes. For this purpose the gene targeting vector pRosa26.8-2 that inserts via homology regions a reporter gene cassette was constructed, comprising a splice acceptor element, the coding region of β-galactosidase and a polyadenylation sequence, into the first intron of the Rosa26 locus (FIGS. 1A, B). The Rosa26 locus is a region on chromosome 6 that has been found to be ubiquitously expressed in all tissues and developmental stages of the mouse and is suitable for transgene expression (Zambrowicz B P, Imamoto A, Fiering S, Herzenberg L A, Kerr W G, Soriano P.; Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997; 94:3789-3794; Seibler J, Zevnik B, Kuter-Luks B, Andreas S, Kern H, Hennek T, Rode A, Heimann C, Faust N, Kauselmann G, Schoor M, Jaenisch R, Rajewsky K, Kuhn R, Schwenk F.; Nucleic Acids Res 2003; 31:e12.). Upon recombination the vector splice acceptor is spliced to the donor site of the Rosa26 transcript such that the fusion transcript codes for β-galactosidase (FIG. 1C).

A) Results

The linearised targeting vector was microinjected into fertilised mouse oocytes (FIGS. 2A, B) together with in vitro transcribed mRNA coding for a pair of zincfinger nuclease proteins that recognise the genomic sequence of Rosa26 and induce a double strand break at the insertion site of the reporter gene cassette (FIG. 1B). Upon microinjection the zincfinger nuclease mRNAs are translated into proteins that induce a double strand break at one or both Rosa26 alleles in one or more cells of the developing embryo. This event stimulates the recombination of the pRosa28-2 vector with a Rosa26 allele via the homology regions present in the vector and leads to the site-specific insertion of the non-homologous reporter gene cassette into the genome (FIG. 1C). Depending on the timing of these events recombination may occur within the one cell embryo or later in only a single cell of a 2-cell, 4-cell or 8-cell embryo. To detect such successful recombination events the microinjected zygotes were further cultivated in vitro and finally incubated with X-Gal as a β-galactosidase substrate that is converted into a insoluble blue coloured product (FIG. 2C).

In both of two independent microinjection experiments we observed a high frequency of X-Gal stained embryos indicating the occurrence of homologous recombination at the one cell stage or at a later developmental stage. In the first experiment 10 of 47 (i.e. 21%) embryos showed partial or complete blue staining while in the second experiment 21 of 44 (i.e. 48%) embryos were positive. Representative non-stained, partially or completely positive embryos of the 1- and 4-cell stages are shown in FIG. 3. Since these embryos were fixed before the staining procedure it was not possible to further derive mice from them.

B) Generation of Live Mice Carrying the Reporter Gene Cassette

In further experiments, the microinjected zygotes were transferred into pseudopregnant females to allow their further development into live mice (Nagy A, Gertsenstein M, Vintersten K, Behringer R., 2003. Manipulating the Mouse Embryo. Cold Spring Harbour, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press). These experiments showed that the microinjected zygotes were able to develop into mouse embryos (FIG. 4A) and that the integrated reporter gene is expressed. In one such experiment, 20 microinjected zygotes were transferred into a pseudopregnant female mouse and 6 embryos recovered at day 18 of development. The embryos were euthanized, cut into half and one half was stained with X-Gal staining solution as described above. This analysis revealed that one of six embryos was clearly and strongly positive for β-Galactosidase reporter gene activity, as indicated by the blue reaction product (FIGS. 4B,C).

C) Analysing for Successful Genomic Modification

In further experiments genomic DNA was extracted from embryonic and adult mice derived from microinjected zygotes. This DNA was then analysed for the expected homologous recombination event at the Rosa26 locus by Southern blot analysis using a labelled probe located upstream of the 5′ Rosa26 homology arm of the pRosa26.8-2 vector. The Rosa26 wildtype allele can be recognised by a band of 11.5 kb while recombined mice can be identified by the presence of an additional band of 3.6 kb.

Southern blot analysis revealed the frequent loss of the XbaI site within the ZFN^(Rosa) target sequence in one or both Rosa26 alleles, as indicated by the presence of a predicted 9 kb fragment in addition to the 4.7 kb wildtype band (e.g. FIG. 5B). Among 58 pups derived from these injections we found 8 heterozygous and 5 homozygous XbaI negative genotypes (FIG. 5B), indicating that mutagenic NHEJ events were induced by ZFN^(Rosa) in 22% of one-cell embryos. One of these pups (#15, FIG. 5B) had an intermediate pattern showing a majority of XbaI negative and a minor proportion of wildtype alleles, indicating that the ZFNs action occurred in this embryo after the first cell division. Sequence analysis of PCR amplified target regions confirmed that the loss of the XbaI site is caused by the deletion of multiple nucleotides within the ZFN target region (FIG. 5C). The DNA of pup #22 (FIG. 5E) showing a 8.5 kb XbaI band (FIG. 5B), predicted for homologous recombination (FIG. 5A) was further characterized by Southern blotting. This analysis proved a bona fide homologous recombination event, as indicated by the presence of the predicted 3.6 kb EcoRV and 9.4 kb EcoRV/SwaI fragments for pup #22 (FIGS. 5B, D), detected with external 5′- and 3′-hybridization probes, respectively. The complete integration of the reporter gene in pup #22 was confirmed with an internal β-Galactosidase-specific probe that detected the predicted 8.5 kb XbaI band (FIG. 5D). The analysis of liver sections for β-Galactosidase activity proved the functionality and heterozygous state of the targeted allele in pup#22 (FIG. 5E). In addition, we verified the integrity of the recombined locus by sequence analysis of the Rosa26/reporter junction regions amplified by PCR from pup #22. Among the 58 analysed pups we found two, # 14 and 21, that exhibit unexpected XbaI fragments of 4.7-8.5 kb (FIG. 5B), were further shown by Southern blot (FIG. 5D, #14) and PCR analysis to contain 3′-sequences, but not the coding region of the reporter cassette (FIG. 5D) and represent incomplete or rearranged recombination products.

D) Targeted Integration of a Venus Reporter Gene into the Rosa26 Locus

In a second experiment we used the targeting vector pRosa26.3-3 that inserts a 1.1 kb Venus reporter gene into the Rosa26 locus (FIG. 6A). DNA analysis of 22 pups derived from zygote co-injections of this vector with ZFN^(Rosa) mRNAs revealed the presence of one recombined allele, as shown by a 3.1 kb BamHl and a 5.6 kb XbaI fragment (FIG. 6B, fetus 6, FIG. 6D) detected with the 5′-Rosa probe and by a 3.9 kb BamHl band detected with a Venus probe (FIG. 6C). The Venus reporter cassette was amplified from the genomic DNA of pup #6 and was found by sequence analysis entirely intact. The second Rosa26 allele of pup #6 had lost the XbaI site within the ZFN^(Rosa) target sequence, as indicated by the presence of a 9 kb XbaI fragment and the absence of the wildtype 4.7 kb band (FIG. 6B), detected with the Rosa26 5′-probe.

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1. A method of modifying a target sequence in the genome of a mammalian or avian oocyte by homologous recombination with a donor nucleic acid sequence, the method comprising the steps: (a) introducing into the oocyte a zinc finger nuclease or a nucleic acid molecule encoding the zinc finger nuclease in expressible form, wherein the zinc finger nuclease specifically binds within the target sequence and introduces a double strand break within the target sequence; and (b) introducing a nucleic acid molecule into the oocyte, wherein the nucleic acid molecule comprises the donor nucleic acid sequence and regions homologous to the target sequence.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the mammalian or avian oocyte is a fertilised mammalian or avian oocyte.
 3. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein the zinc finger nuclease and the nucleic acid molecule are introduced into the oocyte by microinjection.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the nucleic acid molecule encoding the zinc finger nuclease in expressible form is mRNA.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the regions homologous to the target sequence are localised at the 5′ and 3′ end of the donor nucleic acid sequence.
 6. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein the regions homologous to the target sequence comprised in the nucleic acid molecule have a length of at least 400 bp.
 7. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein the modification of the target sequence is selected from the group consisting of substitution, insertion and deletion of a least one nucleotide of the target sequence.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the oocyte is from a mammal selected from the group consisting of rodents, dogs, felides, primates, rabbits, pigs, or cows or wherein the oocyte is from an avian selected from the group consisting of chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ducks, geese, quails and ratites including ostriches, emus and cassowaries.
 9. A method of producing a non-human mammal or an avian carrying a modified target sequence in its genome, the method comprising: (a) modifying the target sequence in the genome of a mammalian or avian oocyte in accordance with any one of claims 1 to 8; (b) transferring the oocyte obtained in (a) to a pseudopregnant female host; and (c) analysing the offspring delivered by the female host for the presence of the modification.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the non-human mammal is selected from the group consisting of rodents, dogs, felides, primates, rabbits, pigs and cows or wherein the avian is selected from the group consisting of chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ducks, geese, quails and ratites including ostriches, emus and cassowaries.
 11. The method of claim 3, wherein the regions homologous to the target sequence comprised in the nucleic acid molecule have a length of at least 400 bp.
 12. The method of claim 4, wherein the regions homologous to the target sequence comprised in the nucleic acid molecule have a length of at least 400 bp.
 13. The method of claim 5, wherein the regions homologous to the target sequence comprised in the nucleic acid molecule have a length of at least 400 bp.
 14. The method of claim 3, wherein the modification of the target sequence is selected from the group consisting of substitution, insertion and deletion of a least one nucleotide of the target sequence and wherein the oocyte is from a mammal selected from the group consisting of rodents, dogs, felides, primates, rabbits, pigs, or cows or wherein the oocyte is from an avian selected from the group consisting of chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ducks, geese, quails and ratites including ostriches, emus and cassowaries.
 15. The method of claim 4, wherein the modification of the target sequence is selected from the group consisting of substitution, insertion and deletion of a least one nucleotide of the target sequence and wherein the oocyte is from a mammal selected from the group consisting of rodents, dogs, felides, primates, rabbits, pigs, or cows or wherein the oocyte is from an avian selected from the group consisting of chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ducks, geese, quails and ratites including ostriches, emus and cassowaries.
 16. The method of claim 5, wherein the modification of the target sequence is selected from the group consisting of substitution, insertion and deletion of a least one nucleotide of the target sequence and wherein the oocyte is from a mammal selected from the group consisting of rodents, dogs, felides, primates, rabbits, pigs, or cows or wherein the oocyte is from an avian selected from the group consisting of chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ducks, geese, quails and ratites including ostriches, emus and cassowaries.
 17. The method of claim 6, wherein the modification of the target sequence is selected from the group consisting of substitution, insertion and deletion of a least one nucleotide of the target sequence and wherein the oocyte is from a mammal selected from the group consisting of rodents, dogs, felides, primates, rabbits, pigs, or cows or wherein the oocyte is from an avian selected from the group consisting of chickens, turkeys, pheasants, ducks, geese, quails and ratites including ostriches, emus and cassowaries. 